The Evolution of Food Flavor Before the 18th Century

Before the 18th century, the evolution of food flavor was deeply influenced by the availability of natural ingredients, regional culinary practices, and the dynamics of trade and exploration. Ancient civilizations, including the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, employed a variety of herbs and spices to enhance their cuisine. Herbs such as thyme, rosemary, and oregano were commonly used, while spices like black pepper, cinnamon, and cumin were highly valued, often imported from distant regions.

In the Middle Ages, European cuisine developed complex flavor profiles, with spices becoming symbols of wealth and status. The Crusades and expanding trade routes introduced Europeans to exotic spices from the East, including cloves, nutmeg, and saffron. These spices served multiple purposes: they enhanced flavor, preserved food, and masked the taste of spoiled ingredients. Spices such as black pepper, cinnamon, cumin, nutmeg, ginger, and cloves were among the most luxurious products available during this period. Their high cost and exotic origins made them prestigious commodities, often used to display wealth and social status.

In Asia, culinary traditions were equally rich and diverse. Chinese cuisine emphasized a balance of flavors—sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami—achieved through ingredients like soy sauce, ginger, garlic, and vinegar. Indian cuisine was renowned for its intricate spice blends, such as garam masala and curry powders, combining various spices to create complex and aromatic dishes.

In the Americas, indigenous peoples utilized native herbs and spices to flavor their food. For instance, vanilla, derived from orchids native to Mesoamerica, was used by the Aztecs to enhance chocolate beverages. The Aztecs combined vanilla with cacao to create a beverage called xocohotl, a precursor to modern hot chocolate.

The global spice trade significantly impacted culinary practices worldwide. Spices like black pepper, cinnamon, and cloves were transported along extensive trade networks, influencing regional cuisines and leading to the development of new flavor combinations. The demand for these spices not only shaped culinary traditions but also had profound economic and political implications, driving exploration and colonization efforts.

In summary, before the 18th century, the history of food flavor was a tapestry woven from the threads of natural ingredient availability, regional culinary traditions, and the far-reaching influence of trade and exploration. These elements combined to create the rich and diverse flavor profiles that laid the foundation for modern gastronomy.
The Evolution of Food Flavor Before the 18th Century

Terpenes: Origin and Properties

Coined by Dumas in 1866, the term "terpene" finds its etymological origin in the Latin word 'turpentine' (Balsamum terebinthinae), denoting a liquid extract derived from pine trees. Turpentine encompasses "resin acids" and specific hydrocarbons initially identified as terpenes. Traditionally, compounds constituted of isoprene subunits, primarily derived from plants, are collectively denominated as terpenes.

Terpenes represent the most extensive and diverse category of plant secondary compounds, predominantly characterized by isoprene units with five carbons linked in various configurations. These compounds are classified based on the quantity of isoprene units, including hemiterpenes (1), monoterpenes (2), sesquiterpenes (3), diterpenes (4), sesterterpenes (5), triterpenes (6), and polyterpenes (numerous units).

While terpenes are prevalent in most plants and fungi, their occurrence in bacteria is infrequent. The development of chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques in 1945 significantly accelerated the exploration of terpenoids and products derived from terpenes. Terpenoidal molecules display antifungal, antimicrobial, antiviral, and antiparasitic properties.

Terpenes are commonly integrated into flavorings and fragrances due to their pleasing aroma. Various plants or their components (roots, rhizomes, stems, leaves, blossoms, fruits, seeds), including conifer wood, balm trees, citrus fruits, coriander, eucalyptus, lavender, lemongrass, lilies, carnation, caraway, different mint species, roses, rosemary, sage, thyme, violets, are recognized for their pleasant scent, spicy taste, or specific pharmacological effects attributed to terpene compounds.

Certain terpenes, such as hemiterpenes, monoterpenes, and sesquiterpenes, possess a high vapor content and are classified as volatile (VTs), while others, like diterpenes, fall into the categories of semi-volatile or non-volatile.
Terpenes: Origin and Properties

Discovery of aromatic compound terpenes

Terpenes are aromatic compounds found in many plants. The common plant sources of terpenes are tea, thyme, cannabis, Spanish sage, and citrus fruits (e.g., lemon, orange, mandarin). The term 'Terpene' is derived from the term 'turpentine'. They are responsible for the odor of pine trees and for the colors of carrots and tomatoes. β-Carotene, found in carrots, and vitamin A are both terpenes.

The essential oils were used in the ancient Egypt for various ceremonies. Camphor was introduced by Arabs around 11th century.

The method of getting plant essential oils via fatty extraction was identified by the early Middle Ages. The process of distillation of oils from rosemary and sage was described by Arnaud de Villanosa (1th century).

Analyses of oils obtained from plants started by French botanist Jacques-Julien Houtou de Labillardière in 1818. Dumas proposed the name ‘Terpene” derived from turpentine. In 1887, Otto Wallach proposed that isoprenoid unit (5C) is present always in terpenes.

When Otto Wallach began his systematic studies of the terpenes, he observed that individual terpene structures contained multiples of a 5-carbon unit that allowed them to be classified according to the number of such units they contained. The canonical C5 unit proved to be isoprene, which Wallach recognized as the core terpenoid structure.

The structure of camphor was discovered by Bredt in the year 1893, that of pinene via Wagner in year 1894 and that of citral by Tiemann in the year 1895.

The structure of beta carotene from carrot was isolated by Wackenrodder and its correct molecular formula was determined by Will Statter.
Discovery of aromatic compound terpenes

History of food flavor

The tradition that ranks the sense of taste as among the lowlier attributes of human beings has roots that run long and deep into the history of philosophy Plato and Aristotle not only laid down some of the major alternatives for philosophical thinking but helped to determine the grounds on which an issue should be considered worthy of philosophical consideration at all.

Flavor has long been an enigma to scientists: Aristotle described two categories of taste, sweet and bitter.

The ancient Indian, Chinese, and Greek civilizations considered the palate to be one of the oldest and most intimate ways that men came into contact with nature.

The application of all products from the flavour and fragrance industry is solely aimed at enhancing the human striving for increased pleasure and sensual enjoyment.

According to Theophrastus, who compiled his predecessors’ theories on the subject, men had been trying to explain the phenomenon of taste since the 6thcentury BC, when Alcmaeon of Croton proposed that the tongue, being naturally warm and soft, dissolved flavors with its heat and absorbent texture, much like a sponge.

In De rerum natura(c. 54 BC) his famous poetic exposition of Democritean physics, the Epicurean poet Lucretius described how these variously shaped atoms then seeped into the networks of pores upon the sponge-like, “loose-textured” tongue. Some of these atoms merely tickled it.

The roots of flavor industry date back to early Egyptian history, as this extraordinarily advanced civilization was already thoroughly aware of and acquainted with perfumery and the embalming characteristics of certain spices and resins. Simple methods for the distillation and extraction of essential oils and resins were already known in pre-Christian times and subsequently elaborated by the Arabs.

In the mid-nineteenth century, flavor additives —volatile organic chemicals with desirable aromatic qualities —began to be used to flavor sugary confections, carbonated beverages, and other mass-marketed delights.

By the mid-twentieth century, added flavors had become ubiquitous in processed, packaged foods; a sophisticated, techno-scientific, and globe-spanning industry had emerged that specialized in their production.

History of food flavor 

Discovery of Cyclamate

In 1937 Michael Sveda a graduate student at the University of Illinois was working in the lab on the synthesis of anti-fever medication.

One day in the laboratory of Prof. Audrieth, he picked up a cigarette lying on his lab bench, put it in his mouth, and discovered that it tasted surprisingly sweet.

Sveda then tasted every substance in sight and traced the sweetness to a compound known as sodium cyclohexylsulfamate. Five years later, Sveda and his professor obtained a patent and assigned the rights to DuPont, Sveda's new employer.

After some initial development by duPont, cyclamate was taken up (under licence) by Abbott Laboratories, a pharmaceutical firm in North Chicago that hope to produce a sweetener suitable for diabetics and other people on sugar restricted diets.

This substance, which proved to be approximately 30 times sweeter than sugar, was first marketed in 1949 as sodium cyclamate in tablet form for use by diabetics.

In 1953, a mixture of 10 parts cyclamate to 1 part saccharin largely replaced the cyclamate-only product, because taste panels had judged that combination to be more palatable.

Cyclamate is generally used in foods as either the sodium or calcium salt. Since 1937, many other sulfamates have been synthesized, although none have been developed for use in foods.

In November 1959, cyclamate was place in the Food and Drug Administration’s list of GRAS. Cyclamate is approved as a sweetener in at least 130 countries while it is currently banned in the United States.
Discovery of Cyclamate

History of Aztec and vanilla flavor

Vanilla is indigenous to Central America from southeastern Mexico through Guatemala to Panama. The Aztec people, who lived in present-day Mexico, were among the first to use vanilla. They traded for vanilla with other peoples, such as the Totonac, who also lived in Mexico.

In Nahuatl, the Aztec language, vanilla is called tlilxochitl and its seeds collected from wild plants were considered among the most important tributes paid to the Aztec leader.

Vanilla became a favorite of the Aztec nobility. In the royal court it was considered an aphrodisiac. A Franciscan friar, Benrhardino de Saghun, write about Mexican vanilla in the early 16th is quoted as saying that the Aztecs used vanilla seeds in cocoa drinks and as a medicine and sold them in their markets.

Meanwhile, Hernando Cortes, the Spanish conqueror of the Aztecs, became the first European to taste vanilla when he drank chocotatl in Montezuma’s banquet hall.

Although the Spaniards imported vanilla beans to Europe, where they were used to flavor chocolate, which the Spaniards also borrowed from the Aztec, vanilla processing factories were not established in Europe until the late 1700s.
History of Aztec and vanilla flavor

Component of flavor profile

Flavor includes components such as sweetness, acidity, astringency, bitterness, aroma and off-flavors.

Flavor is governed mostly by sweetness and sourness that is perceived on the tongue in the parts per hundred ranges and is the component that receives the most attention.

The Flavor Profile Method was introduced by Arthur D. Little., in 1949 and is the only formal qualitative procedure. The analysis is a way of completely describing all the flavor components of a material.

It is based on the idea that flavor consists of identifiable taste, odor and chemical feeling factors plus an underlying complex of sensory impression not separately identifiable.

The following are the key component of the flavor profile:
*Overall impression of aroma and flavor called amplitude
*Identification of perceptible aroma and flavor notes
*Intensity of each character note
*Order in which these character notes are perceived, called order of appearance
*Aftertaste
Component of flavor profile

The flavor of tea

Tea is the second most consumed beverage in the world. The first is water. All tea comes from the same plant, known as Camellia Sinensis.

The different categories of tea (black, oolong, green, white) are the result of variations in the way the leaves are processed after they are harvested.

The Camellia Sinensis (tea tree) is an evergreen plant native to China. It can grow to a height of 30 feet, but is usually pruned to a height of 2-3 feet in cultivation.

As legend has it, tea was accidentally discovered around 2737 B.C by a Chinese emperor who was sitting beneath a tree waiting for his water to boil when a few leaves fell into his pot.

The invention of the tea bag was also an accident. In 1904, Thomas Sullivan, and American tea importer, began sending tea samples to customers in small silk bags to avoid the high cost of using tins. Rather than cutting open the bags and pouring the tea into tea pots as Sullivan had anticipated, his customers left the tea in the sachets for steeping. Sullivan's "invention" was a hit, and orders for tea in the sample bags came rolling in.

In the 1920's gauze was substituted, followed by paper. All true teas (black, white, green, oolong) contain flavenoids, which are a type of antioxidant. Antioxidants protect healthy cells from damage-causing free radicals, which are unstable molecules thought to contribute to cancer and heart disease.

All true teas are naturally caffeinated. Caffeine levels in tea vary depending on the region where the plant is grown and how the leaves are processed. The size of the leaf, temperature of the water, and how long you brew the tea are also factors.

Brewing tea longer and using hotter water yields a more caffeinated cup. It can eliminate 97% of the caffeine if brewed in tea pod once, discard the liquor, and then brew the pod a second time and drink the resulting infusion.

According to the USDA, an 8-oz cup of brewed tea contains 25-50 mg of caffeine. Generally speaking, an 8-oz cup of green tea has about 30 milligrams of caffeine, and black tea has around 40 milligrams.
The flavor of tea

History of Flavor Industry Development

Flavorings are a major category of ingredients intentionally added to food. It is a sensation evoked with a range of technical terms in Greek and Latin.

Their history began when people discovered that components characteristics of the aroma of natural products could be enriched by simple methods.

The known utilization of spices and herbs extends over some 5000 years, starting with the ancient Egyptian. One of spices and herbs functions according to the historical period was the enhancing of food flavour.

The flavour industry has developed only after the past 160 years from small beginnings in companies specializing in the processing and marketing of natural botanicals such as the herbs and spices, vanilla beans, vegetables drugs and the distillation of essential oils and aromatic essences, the isolation of aromatic chemicals from these products and drug extraction.

Systematic development began in the 13th century, when pharmacies started to prepare so-called remedy oils and later recorded the properties and physiological effects of these oils in pharmacopeias.

Many essential oils currently used by perfumes and flavorists were originally prepared by distillation in pharmacies in the 16th and 17th centuries.

It was not until the latter half of the 19th century that chemicals began to realize the flavouring possibilities of synthetic aromatic chemicals.

In 1858, vanilla was first crystallized from an alcoholic extract of vanilla beans by Gobley.

Methyl salicylates followed in 1859 as ‘artificial wintergreen oil’ and benzaldehyde in 1870 as ‘artificial butter almond oil’ were synthesized by chemical industry for fruity odor.

It was 1872 before Charles established its empirical formula and two years later before Tieman and Haarman reported its structure and later Reimer confirmed it by synthesizing vanillin from guaianol.

Tieman and Haarman later founded a company, Haarman and Reimer and started the first industrial production of vanillin.

At about the same time organic chemists were preparing a wide range of highly odorous aromatic chemicals which were later to be of great value to the flavour industry.

The flavor industry emerged in the mid nineteenth century processed foods began to be manufactured on large scale.

In the early part of the twentieth century, Germany’s powerful chemical industry assumed the technological lead in flavour production.

A solution of esters for use as artificial fruit essences were exhibited in a trade fair in London and shortly after were in use in the United States.

In 1869, the first book of artificial flavouring formulations was published anonymously in Philadelphia.

In 1916, Walters manual for the essence industry was released. Its named ‘Manual for the Essence Industry.’ The intermediate period between the late 1950s and the early 1960s, produce major breakthrough in raspberry and strawberry flavors.

Today the industry is dominated by several very large multinational flavour and fragrance companies mainly prime in natural products and/or synthetic chemicals which are used in the compounding of an almost limitless range of flavorings and fragrance products.
History of Flavor Industry Development

History of Synthetic Flavoring

Synthetic flavorings almost any desired type are now available. These frequently posses the delicate flavor and aroma of the natural products and also the desirable characteristic of stability, reproducibility and comparatively low cost.

Although the food industry is rooted deep in history, the flavor industry has developed only over the past 170 years.

Throughout history, men have sought to make their food more appetizing, first by using spices and herbs and then by the spirits of fruits and aromatic plants or essential oils.

Supply of these commodities was obviously limited in terms of both availability and quality, especially as the size of markets increased in the nineteenth century with the growth of modern consumerism.

It was not until the latter half of the 19th century that chemists has began to realize the flavoring possibilities of synthetic aromatic chemicals.

As a result of advances in chemical analysis and synthetic organic chemistry, came an increasing number of nature identical and synthetic flavor chemicals, which allowed improved fidelity to the original materials and greater flavor intensity, stability and reproducibility.

The first synthetic “aroma oils” were introduced between 1845 and 1850. These consisted of lower molecular mass fatty acid esters of several alcoholic and were synthesized by the chemical industry for their fruity odor.

In 1858, vanillin was first crystallized from an alcoholic extract of vanilla beans by Gobley.

In 1860, the first book of artificial flavoring formulations was published anonymously in Philadelphia.

In the middle to late 1800s, the potential of synthetic aromatics to increase the effectiveness of natural flavors was beginning to be realized.

In 1851 at the World’s Fair in London, solution of esters were exhibited and recommended as artificial fruit essences.

The term synthetic, artificial and chemical flavoring have aroused the doubts and suspicious of consumers in some instances. However, many such chemical components also occur in nature.

It has been noted by the FDA that an artificial flavoring is no less safe, nutritious or desirable than a natural flavor and the the purpose for distinguishing between a natural and artificial flavor is for economic rescan, i.e. the natural flavoring is often more expensive than the artificial flavor.
History of Synthetic Flavoring

Peppermint flavor

Peppermint favor is one of the most universal tastes around and for good reason. It bright and cheerful and tastes good.

Peppermint is a hybrid of M. aquatica and M. spicata. It is cultivated in a number of European countries, North Africa and the United States of America.

This special form of mint cannot be grown from seed, but must be rooted from cuttings.

Peppermint has a right green leaves with purple-tinged stems. It is somewhat peppery and more pungent than spearmint.

Its flavor comes from its menthol content. Peppermint’s menthol is a mild anesthetic and it appears to aid digestion. Menthol in peppermint oil produces a cool sensation in mouth.

Peppermint is known technically by its Latin binomial Mentha x piperita where Mentha is the genus for various mint, x refers to a hybrid and piperita refers to that particular species, peppermint.

Piperita means pepper scented. Peppermint has string taste and should be mixed with other greens in a salad.

Peppermint’s origin are unknown, but the dried leaves have been found in the pyramids in Egypt, dating from as early as 1000 BC.

Its genus name, Mentha, is derived from Greek mythical nymph Mintha, who metamorphosed in this plant.

Pliny says that the Greeks and Romans crowned themselves with peppermint at their feasts and that their cooks flavored both sauces and wines with it.

It didn’t become popular in Europe until about the eighteenth century. Peppermint is a hybrid of watermint and spearmint that was first cultivated near London in 1750.

Peppermint is cultivated primarily for its pungent essential oil. It is one of the world’s most popular flavors being used in a wide range of sugar confectionary, chewing gum, chocolate filling as well as in pharmaceuticals and liqueurs.
Peppermint flavor

Early food flavor before 19th century

In 1492 Christopher Columbus set sail to find seasoning. Today the influence of flavor in the world market place is no loess decisive. The rise and fall of corporate empires – of soft drinks companies, snack food companies and fast food chains - is frequently determined by how their products taste.

During the early days of history, people used mainly herbs and spices (whole or ground) to impart flavor to , or modify the flavor of, foods. It is to make food more appetizing, first by using spices and herbs and then by the extraction of fruits and aromatic plants during Middle Ages or distillation of essential oils.

The latter were predominantly used by pharmacists, and it was not until the 19th century that some people found out that essential oils can be used to impart flavor to foods.

It is believed that people began the practice of adding flavor to foods by marinating or soaking them in seasoned and salted liquid between the mid-1600s and the mid–1700s.

In the second half of the 19th century, chemists began to realize the flavoring potential of some synthetic chemicals e.g. vanillin.

Wohler and Liebig synthesized benzaldehyde in 1830 and this substance was identified in 1932 by Robiquet an Boutron-Charlard to be responsible for the odor of bitter almonds.

Thus was born the flavor industry around the middles of the 19th century.
Early food flavor before 19th century

History of Flavor Industry

History of Flavor Industry
Human are decisively influenced by their sense of taste and odour and human history is, therefore, closely tied to the development and usage of flavors.

Whereas in prehistoric times, only herbs and species could be employed for flavoring purposes, today a broad spectrum of flavorings is available, not only for use in the individual household, but especially for the production of food on an industrial scale.

The application of all products from the flavor and fragrance industry is solely aimed at enhancing the human striving for increased pleasure and sensual enjoyment. Hedonistic aspects, therefore, form the basis of the industry.

The roots of this industry date back to early Egyptian history, as this extraordinarily advanced civilization was already thoroughly aware of and acquainted with perfumery and the embalming characteristics of certain species and resins.

Simple methods for the distillation and extraction of essential oils and resins already known in pre Christian times and subsequently elaborated by the Arabs.

Balsamic oils produced by these methods were later on primarily used for pharmaceutical purposes; it was not before the times of the courtly baroque period that fragrance was an aspect of growing importance.

In the medieval age, mostly monks were the pioneers in the art of capturing natural essences and transforming them into substances capable of flavoring food.

The onset of the industrial production of essential oils can be dated back to the first half of the 19th century.

After the importance of single chemicals was recognized in the middle of the century, efforts were started to isolate such compounds from corresponding natural resources for the first time. This was soon followed by the synthesis of aroma chemicals.

Generally, the dynamics of the flavor and fragrance industry mirror the trend of many industrial sectors: the most important representatives of a large number of nationally oriented companies have through mergers, acquisitions, and market expansion developed into globally operating multinational enterprises.
History of Flavor Industry

Thyme history and uses

Thyme history and uses
The rubbed thyme herb of commerce is derived from the flowering tops of two species of thyme which grow wild on the vast heathlands of southeast Spain, along the coats of the Mediterranean and on the source slopes of the Atlas Mountains in Morocco.

The entire herb is harvested when the flowers are fully open during July and August, the cut herb being distilled in field stills to give 0.6 to 1.0% of a yellowish-red essential oil.

The oil color of the oil may darken considerably due to iron contamination from the stills.

Odor: rich, sweet, pleasingly aromatic. Initially warming then cooling with a slight anesthetic effect.

Flavor: sweet, phenolic, medicinal sharp, biting.

History
Several explanations exist concerning the origin of the name ‘Thymus’. Some authors assume that the Latin name Thymus comes from the Greek word thyo (perfume).

Another interpretation of its etymology considers the Greek word thymos (sources, strength).

Originally ‘thymus’ described a group of aromatic plants with similar aspects which were used as stimulants of vital functions.

Many popular names in the Romance languages are derived from the Latin name.

In his work about medicinal plants and poisons, Dioscorides writes about ‘Thymo’. Laguna however did not find ether any Thymus species but a plant corresponding to the genus Satureja.
It is presented as an erect plant, whereas the former shows a creeping habit.

In his Natural History, Plinio reports on T. vulgari as follows: ‘in the Narbonne province, the stony fields are full of thyme and thousands of sheep come from very far provinces to feed on it’.

Later page he speaks about two different varieties of thyme, a white and a black one, and he comments on their therapeutic attributes.

Uses
Thyme takes its place in herbal medicine with other old fashioned “simples,” like sage and lavender, as a treatment for a variety of ailments.

You may have noticed its flavor in cough medicines. It has also serves as a carminative, vermifuge, rubefacient and antiseptic.

Thyme is particularly beneficial in quieting gastrointestinal complaints and it was boiled in wine for a digestive drink.

A tea has been prescribed for shortness of breath and congested lungs.

The Greek used thyme for nervous conditions, as an antiseptic, and as a fumigator.

Apparently, the herb has antispasmodic qualities that make it effective in relieving asthma, whooping cough and stomach cramps.

In culinary, Thyme tastes delicately green with a faint clove aftertaste. It ranks as one of the fines herbes of French cuisine.

Leaves and sprigs are used in salads as garnishes and most famously in clam chowder, bouquets garnis and French, Creole and Cajun cuisines.

Thyme work well with veal, lamb, beef, poultry, fish, poultry stuffing, pates, sausages, stew, soups, stocks, bread, herbed butter, herbed mayonnaise, flavored vinegars, mustard and bean and lentil casseroles.
Thyme history and uses